{"title": "Collaborative Filtering with Graph Information: Consistency and Scalable Methods", "book": "Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems", "page_first": 2107, "page_last": 2115, "abstract": "Low rank matrix completion plays a fundamental role in collaborative filtering applications, the key idea being that the variables lie in a smaller subspace than the ambient space. Often, additional information about the variables is known, and it is reasonable to assume that incorporating this information will lead to better predictions. We tackle the problem of matrix completion when pairwise relationships among variables are known, via a graph. We formulate and derive a highly efficient, conjugate gradient based alternating minimization scheme that solves optimizations with over 55 million observations up to 2 orders of magnitude faster than state-of-the-art (stochastic) gradient-descent based methods. On the theoretical front, we show that such methods generalize weighted nuclear norm formulations, and derive statistical consistency guarantees. We validate our results on both real and synthetic datasets.", "full_text": "Collaborative Filtering with Graph Information:\n\nConsistency and Scalable Methods\n\nNikhil Rao\n\nHsiang-Fu Yu\n\nPradeep Ravikumar\n\nInderjit S. Dhillon\n\n{nikhilr, rofuyu, paradeepr, inderjit}@cs.utexas.edu\n\nDepartment of Computer Science\n\nUniversity of Texas at Austin\n\nAbstract\n\nLow rank matrix completion plays a fundamental role in collaborative \ufb01ltering\napplications, the key idea being that the variables lie in a smaller subspace than\nthe ambient space. Often, additional information about the variables is known,\nand it is reasonable to assume that incorporating this information will lead to\nbetter predictions. We tackle the problem of matrix completion when pairwise\nrelationships among variables are known, via a graph. We formulate and derive\na highly ef\ufb01cient, conjugate gradient based alternating minimization scheme that\nsolves optimizations with over 55 million observations up to 2 orders of magni-\ntude faster than state-of-the-art (stochastic) gradient-descent based methods. On\nthe theoretical front, we show that such methods generalize weighted nuclear norm\nformulations, and derive statistical consistency guarantees. We validate our results\non both real and synthetic datasets.\n\nIntroduction\n\n1\nLow rank matrix completion approaches are among the most widely used collaborative \ufb01ltering\nmethods, where a partially observed matrix is available to the practitioner, who needs to impute the\nmissing entries. Speci\ufb01cally, suppose there exists a ratings matrix Y 2 Rm\u21e5n, and we only observe\na subset of the entries Yij,8(i, j) 2 \u2326,|\u2326| = N \u2327 mn. The goal is to estimate Yi,j,8(i, j) /2 \u2326.\nTo this end, one typically looks to solve one of the following (equivalent) programs:\n\n\u02c6Z = arg min\nZ\n\u02c6W , \u02c6H = arg min\nW,H\n\n1\n2kP\u2326(Y  Z)k2\n1\n2kP\u2326(Y  W H T )k2\n\nF + zkZk\u21e4\nw\n2 kWk2\n\nF +\n\nF +\n\nh\n2 kHk2\n\nF\n\n(1)\n\n(2)\n\nwhere the nuclear norm kZk\u21e4, given by the sum of singular values, is a tight convex relaxation of the\nnon convex rank penalty, and is equivalent to the regularizer in (2). P\u2326(\u00b7) is the projection operator\nthat only retains those entries of the matrix that lie in the set \u2326.\nIn many cases however, one not only has the partially observed ratings matrix, but also has access\nto additional information about the relationships between the variables involved. For example, one\nmight have access to a social network of users. Similarly, one might have access to attributes of\nitems, movies, etc. The nature of the attributes can be fairly arbitrary, but it is reasonable to assume\nthat \u201csimilar\u201d users/items share \u201csimilar\u201d attributes. A natural question to ask then, is if one can take\nadvantage of this additional information to make better predictions. In this paper, we assume that\nthe row and column variables lie on graphs. The graphs may naturally be part of the data (social\nnetworks, product co-purchasing graphs) or they can be constructed from available features. The\nidea then is to incorporate this additional structural information into the matrix completion setting.\n\n1\n\n\fWe not only require the resulting optimization program to enforce additional constraints on Z, but\nwe also require it to admit ef\ufb01cient optimization algorithms. We show in the sections that follow that\nthis in fact is indeed the case. We also perform a theoretical analysis of our problem when the ob-\nserved entries of Y are corrupted by additive white Gaussian noise. To summarize, the contributions\nof our paper are as follows:\n\n\u2022 We provide a scalable algorithm for matrix completion graph with structural information.\nOur method relies on ef\ufb01cient Hessian-vector multiplication schemes, and is orders of mag-\nnitude faster than (stochastic) gradient descent based approaches.\n\u2022 We make connections with other structured matrix factorization frameworks. Notably, we\nshow that our method generalizes the weighted nuclear norm [21], and methods based on\nGaussian generative models [27].\n\u2022 We derive consistency guarantees for graph regularized matrix completion, and empirically\nshow that our bound is smaller than that of traditional matrix completion, where graph\ninformation is ignored.\n\u2022 We empirically validate our claims, and show that our method achieves comparable error\n\nrates to other methods, while being signi\ufb01cantly more scalable.\n\nRelated Work and Key Differences\n\nFor convex methods for matrix factorization, Haeffele et al. [9] provided a framework to use regu-\nlarizers with norms other than the Euclidean norm in (2). Abernethy et al. [1] considered a kernel\nbased embedding of the data, and showed that the resulting problem can be expressed as a norm min-\nimization scheme. Srebro and Salakhutdinov [21] introduced a weighted nuclear norm, and showed\nthat the method enjoys superior performance as compared to standard matrix completion under a\nnon-uniform sampling scheme. We show that the graph based framework considered in this paper is\nin fact a generalization of the weighted nuclear norm problem, with non-diagonal weight matrices.\nIn the context of matrix factorization with graph structural information, [5] considered a graph reg-\nularized nonnegative matrix factorization framework and proposed a gradient descent based method\nto solve the problem. In the context of recommendation systems in social networks, Ma et al. [14]\nmodeled the weight of a graph edge1 explicitly in a re-weighted regularization framework. Li and\nYeung [13] considered a similar setting to ours, but a key point of difference between all the afore-\nmentioned methods and our paper is that we consider the partially observed ratings case. There are\nsome works developing algorithms for the situation with partially observations [12, 26, 27]; how-\never, none of them provides statistical guarantees. Weighted norm minimization has been considered\nbefore ([16, 21]) in the context of low rank matrix completion. The thrust of these methods has been\nto show that despite suboptimal conditions (correlated data, non-uniform sampling), the sample\ncomplexity does not change. None of these methods use graph information. We are interested in a\ncomplementary question: Given variables conforming to graph information, can we obtain better\nguarantees under uniform sampling to those achieved by traditional methods?\n\n2 Graph-Structured Matrix Factorization\nAssume that the \u201ctrue\u201d target matrix can be factorized as Z? = W ?(H ?)T , and there exist a graph\n(V w, Ew) whose adjacency matrix encodes the relationships between the m rows of W ? and a graph\n(V h, Eh) for n rows of H ?. In particular, two rows (or columns) connected by an edge in the graph\nare \u201cclose\u201d to each other in the Euclidean distance. In the context of graph-based embedding, [3, 4]\nproposed a smoothing term of the form\n\n1\n\n(3)\n\nij(wi  wj)2 = tr(W T Lap(Ew)W )\nEw\n\n2Xi,j\nwhere Lap(Ew) := Dw  Ew is the graph Laplacian for (V w, Ew), where Dw is the diagonal\nii =Pj\u21e0i Ew\nmatrix with Dw\nij. Adding (3) into the minimization problem (2) encourages solutions\nij is large. A similar argument holds for H ? and the associated graph\nwhere wi \u21e1 wj when Ew\nLaplacian Lap(Eh).\n\n1The authors call this the \u201ctrust\u201d between links in a social network\n\n2\n\n\fF +\n\nmin\nW,H\n\n1\n\n2kP\u2326Y  W H Tk2\n\nWe would thus not only want the target matrix to be low rank, but also want the variables W, H to\nbe faithful to the underlying graph structure. To this end, we consider the following problem:\nL\n2 {tr(W T Lap(Ew)W ) + tr(H T Lap(Eh)H)}+\nw\n2 kWk2\n2kP\u2326Y  W H Tk2\nF +\n\n(5)\nwhere Lw := L Lap(Ew) + wIm, and Lh is de\ufb01ned similarly. Note that we subsume the regu-\nlarization parameters in the de\ufb01nition of Lw, Lh. Note that kWk2\nThe regularizer in (5) encourages solutions that are smooth with respect to the corresponding graphs.\nHowever, the Laplacian matrix can be replaced by other (positive, semi-de\ufb01nite) matrices that en-\ncourage structure by different means. Indeed, a very general class of Laplacian based regularizers\nwas considered in [20], where one can replace Lw by a function:\n\nh\n2 kHk2\n2tr(W T LwW ) + tr(H T LhH) \n\nF = tr(W T ImW ).\n\n\u2318 min\n\nW,H\n\nF +\n1\n\n(4)\n\n1\n\nF\n\nhx,\u2327 (Lap(E))xi where\n\n\u2327 (Lap(E)) \u2318\n\n\u2327 (i)qiqT\ni ,\n\n|V |Xi=1\n\nwhere {(i, qi)} constitute the eigen-system of Lap(E) and \u2327 (i) is a scalar function of the eigen-\nvalues. Our case corresponds to \u2327 (\u00b7) being the identity function. We brie\ufb02y summarize other\nschemes that \ufb01t neatly into (5), apart from the graph regularizer we consider:\n\nCovariance matrices for variables:\n[27] proposed a kernelized probabilistic matrix factorization\n(KPMF), which is a generative model to incorporate covariance information of the variables into\nmatrix factorization. They assumed that each row of W ?, H ? is generated according to a multivariate\nGaussian, and solving the corresponding MAP estimation procedure yields exactly (5), with Lw =\nw and Lh = C1\nC1\n\nh , where Cw, Ch are the associated covariance matrices.\n\nFeature matrices for variables: Assume that there is a feature matrix X 2 Rm\u21e5d for objects\nassociated rows. For such X, one can construct a graph (and hence a Laplacian) using various\nmethods such as k-nearest neighbors, \u270f-nearest neighbors etc. Moreover, one can assume that there\nexists a kernel k(xi, xj) that encodes pairwise relations, and we can use the Kernel Gram matrix as\na Laplacian.\nWe can thus see that problem (5) is a very general scheme, and can incorporate information available\nin many different forms. In the sequel, we assume the matrices Lw, Lh are given. In the theoretical\nanalysis in Section 5, for ease of exposition, we further assume that the minimum eigenvalues of\nLw, Lh are unity. A general (nonzero) minimum eigenvalue will merely introduce multiplicative\nconstants in our bounds.\n\n3 GRALS: Graph Regularized Alternating Least Squares\nIn this section, we propose ef\ufb01cient algorithms for (5), which is convex with respect to W or H\nseparately. This allows us to employ alternating minimization methods [25] to solve the problem.\nWhen Y is fully observed, Li and Yeung [13] propose an alternating minimization scheme using\nblock steepest descent. We deal with the partially observed setting, and propose to apply conjugate\ngradient (CG), which is known to converge faster than steepest descent, to solve each subproblem.\nWe propose a very ef\ufb01cient Hessian-vector multiplication routine that results in the algorithm being\nhighly scalable, compared to the (stochastic) gradient descent approaches in [14, 27].\nWe assume that Y 2 Rm\u21e5n, W 2 Rm\u21e5k and H 2 Rn\u21e5k. When optimizing H with W \ufb01xed, we\nobtain the following sub-problem.\n\nmin\nH\n\nf (H) =\n\n1\n\n2kP\u2326Y  W H Tk2\n\nF +\n\n1\n2\n\ntr(H T LhH).\n\n(6)\n\nOptimizing W while H \ufb01xed is similar, and thus we only show the details for solving (6). Since Lh\nis nonsingular, (6) is strongly convex.2 We \ufb01rst present our algorithm for the fully observed case,\nsince it sets the groundwork for the partially observed setting.\n\n2In fact, a nonsingular Lh can be handled using proximal updates, and our algorithm will still apply\n\n3\n\n\fAlgorithm 1 Hv-Multiplication for g(s)\n\n\u2022 Given: Matrices Lh, W\n\u2022 Initialization: G = W T W\n\u2022 Multiplication: r2g(s0)s:\n1 Input: S 2 Rn\u21e5k s.t.\n2 A SG + LhS\n3 Return: vec(A)\n\ns = vec(S)\n\nAlgorithm 2 Hv-Multiplication for g\u2326(s)\n\ns = vec(S)\n\n\u2022 Given: Matrices Lh, W, \u2326\n\u2022 Multiplication: r2g(s0)s:\n1 Input: S 2 Rk\u21e5n s.t.\n2 Compute K = [k1, . . . , kn] s.t.\nkj Pi2\u2326j\n(wT\n3 A K + SLh\n4 Return: vec(A)\n\ni sj)wi\n\n3.1 Fully Observed Case\nAs in [5, 13] among others, there may be scenarios where Y is completely observed, and the goal\nis to \ufb01nd the row/column embeddings that conform to the corresponding graphs. In this case, the\nloss term in (6) is simply kY  W H Tk2\nF . Thus, setting rf (H) = 0 is equivalent to solving the\nfollowing Sylvester equation for an n \u21e5 k matrix H:\n(7)\n(7) admits a closed form solution. However the standard Bartels-Stewart algorithm for the Sylvester\nequation requires transforming both W T W and Lh into Schur form (diagonal in our case where\nW T W and Lh are symmetric) by the QR algorithm, which is time consuming for a large Lh. Thus,\nwe consider applying conjugate gradient (CG) to minimize f (H) directly. We de\ufb01ne the following\nquadratic function:\n1\n2\n\ns, s 2 Rnk, M = Ik \u2326 Lh + (W T W ) \u2326 In\n\nHW T W + LhH = Y T W.\n\ng(s) :=\n\nIt is not hard to show that f (H) = g(vec(H)) and so we apply CG to minimize g(s).\nThe most crucial step in CG is the Hessian-vector multiplication. Using the identity (BT \u2326\nA) vec(X) = vec(AXB), it follows that\n(Ik \u2326 Lh) s = vec(LhS) ,\n\nand (W T W ) \u2326 In s = vecSW T W ,\n\nwhere vec(S) = s. Thus the Hessian-vector multiplication can be implemented by a series of matrix\nmultiplications as follows.\n\nsT M s  vecY T WT\n\nM s = vecLhS + S(W T W ) ,\n\nwhere W T W can be pre-computed and stored in O(k2) space. The details are presented in Algo-\nrithm 1. The time complexity for a single CG iteration is O(nnz(Lh)k + nk2), where nnz(\u00b7) is the\nnumber of non zeros. Since in most practical applications k is generally small, the complexity is\nessentially O(nnz(Lh)k) as long as nk \uf8ff nnz(Lh).\n3.2 Partially Observed Case\nIn this case, the loss term of (6) becomesP(i,j)2\u2326(Yij  wT\n\nand hj is the j-th column of H T . Similar to the fully observed case, we can de\ufb01ne:\n\ni hj)2, where wT\ni\n\nis the i-th row of W\n\ng\u2326(s) :=\n\n1\n2\n\nsT M\u2326s  vecW T YT\n\ns,\n\nwiwT\n\nwhere M\u2326 = \u00afB + Lh \u2326 Ik, \u00afB 2 Rnk\u21e5nk is a block diagonal matrix with n diagonal blocks\nBj 2 Rk\u21e5k. Bj = Pi2\u2326j\ni , where \u2326j = {i : (i, j) 2 \u2326}. Again, we can see f (H) =\ng\u2326(vecH T). Note that the transpose H T is used here instead of H, which is used in the fully\n\nobserved case.\nFor a given s,\nlet S = [s1, . . . sj, . . . sn] be a matrix such that vec(S) = s and K =\n[k1, . . . , kj, . . . , kn] with kj = Bjsj. Then \u00afBs = vec(K). Note that since n can be very large in\npractice, it may not be feasible to compute and store all Bj in the beginning. Alternatively, Bjsj\ncan be computed in O(|\u2326j|k) time as follows.\nBjsj = Xi2\u2326j\n\ni sj)wi.\n\n(wT\n\n4\n\n\fThus \u00afBs can be computed in O(|\u2326|k) time, and the Hessian-vector multiplication M\u2326s can be\ndone in O (|\u2326|k + nnz(Lh)k) time. See Algorithm 2 for a detailed procedure. As a result, each CG\niteration for minimizing g\u2326(s) is also very cheap.\n\nRemark on Convergence.\nIn [2], it is shown that any local minimizer of (5) is a global minimizer\nof (5) if k is larger than the true rank of the underlying matrix.3 From [25], the alternating mini-\nmization procedure is guaranteed to globally converge to a block coordinate-wise minimum4 of (5).\nThe converged point might not be a local minimizer, but it still yields good performance in practice.\nMost importantly, since the updates are cheap to perform, our algorithm scales well to large datasets.\n\n4 Convex Connection via Generalized Weighted Nuclear Norm\nWe now show that the regularizer in (5) can be cast as a generalized version of the weighted nuclear\nnorm. The weights in our case will correspond to the scaling factors introduced on the matrices\nW, H due to the eigenvalues of the shifted graph Laplacians Lw, Lh respectively.\n\ni\n\np\n\n4.1 A weighted atomic norm:\nFrom [7], we know that the nuclear norm is the gauge function induced by the atomic set: A\u21e4 =\n: kwik = khik = 1}. Note that all rank one matrices in A\u21e4 have unit Frobenius norm.\n{wihT\nNow, assume P = [p1, . . . , pm] 2 Rm\u21e5m is a basis of Rm and S1/2\nis a diagonal matrix with\n(S1/2\n)ii  0 encoding the \u201cpreference\u201d over the space spanned by pi. The more the preference,\nthe larger the value. Similarly, consider the basis Q and the preference S1/2\nfor Rn. Let A =\nand B = QS1/2\nP S1/2\n, and consider the following \u201cpreferential\u201d atomic set:\n: wi = Aui, hi = Bvi,kuik = kvik = 1}.\n\n(8)\nClearly, each atom in A has non-unit Frobenius norm. This atomic set allows for biasing of the\nsolutions towards certain atoms. We then de\ufb01ne a corresponding atomic norm:\n\nA := { i = wihT\n\np\n\np\n\nq\n\nq\n\ni\n\nkZkA = inf Xi2A\n\n|ci|\n\ns.t. Z = Xi2A\n\nci i.\n\n(9)\n\nIt is not hard to verify that kZkA is a norm and {Z : kZkA \uf8ff \u2327} is closed and convex.\n4.2 Equivalence to Graph Regularization\n\nThe graph regularization (5) can be shown to be a special case of the atomic norm (9), as a conse-\nquence of the following result:\nTheorem 1. For any A = P S1/2\n1\n2{kA1Wk2\n\n, and corresponding weighted atomic set A ,\n\nF + kB1Hk2\nF}\n\nkZkA = inf\n\ns.t. Z = W H T .\n\n, B = QS1/2\n\nW,H\n\np\n\nq\n\nWe prove this result in Appendix A. Theorem 1 immediately leads us to the following equivalence\nresult:\nCorollary 1. Let Lw = UwSwU T\nWe have\n\nh be the eigen decomposition for Lw and Lh.\n\nw and Lh = UhShU T\n\nTrW T LwW = kA1Wk2\n\nw\n\nwhere A = UwS1/2\nfor the column space and the preference pair (Uh, S1/2\nequivalent for the graph regularization using Lw and Lh.\n\nand B = UhS1/2\n\nh\n\nh\n\nand TrH T LhH = kB1Hk2\n\nF ,\n. As a result, kMkA with the preference pair (Uw, S1/2\n)\n) for row space is a weighted atomic norm\n\nF ,\n\nw\n\nThe results above allow us to obtain the dual weighted atomic norm for a matrix Z\n\nkZk\u21e4A = kAT ZB k = kS 1\n\n2\n\nw U T\n\nw ZUhS 1\nh k\n\n2\n\n(10)\n\n3The authors actually show this for a more general class of regularizers.\n4Nash equilibrium is used in [25].\n\n5\n\n\fwhich is a weighted spectral norm. An elementary proof of this result can be found in Appendix B.\nNote that we can then write\n\nkZkA = kA1ZBTk\u21e4 = kS\n\n1\n2\n\nw U1\n\nw ZUT\n\nh S\n\n1\n2\n\nh k\u21e4\n\n(11)\n\nIn [21], the authors consider a norm similar to (11), but with A, B being diagonal matrices. In the\nspirit of their nomenclature, we refer to the norm in (11) as the generalized weighted nuclear norm.\n\n5 Statistical Consistency in the Presence of Noisy Measurements\nIn this section, we derive theoretical guarantees for the graph regularized low rank matrix estimators.\nWe \ufb01rst introduce some additional notation. We assume that there is a m \u21e5 n matrix Z? of rank\nk with kZ?kF = 1, and N = |\u2326| entries of Z? are uniformly sampled5 and revealed to us (i.e.,\nY = P\u2326(Z?)). We further assume an one-to-one mapping between the set of observed indices \u2326\nand {1, 2, . . . , N} so that the tth measurement is given by\n\npmn\n\nyt = Yi(t),j(t) = hei(t)eT\n\n\u2318t \u21e0N (0, 1).\n\nj(t), Z?i +\n\n(12)\n\n\u2318t\n\nwhere h\u00b7,\u00b7i denotes the matrix trace inner product, and i(t), j(t) is a randomly selected coordinate\npair from [m]\u21e5[n]. Let A, B are corresponding matrices de\ufb01ned in Corollary 1 for the given Lw, Lh.\nW.L.O.G, we assume that the minimum singular value of both Lw and Lh is 1. We then de\ufb01ne the\nfollowing graph based complexity measures:\n\n\u21b5g(Z) := pmnkA1ZBTk1\nkA1ZBTkF\n\n,\n\ng(Z) := kA1ZBTk\u21e4\nkA1ZBTkF\n\n(13)\n\nwhere k\u00b7k 1 is the element-wise `1 norm. Finally, we assume that the true matrix Z? can be\nexpressed as a linear combination of atoms from (8) (we de\ufb01ne \u21b5? := \u21b5g(Z?)):\n\nZ? = AU ?(V ?)T BT , U ? 2 Rm\u21e5k, V ? 2 Rn\u21e5k,\n\n(14)\n\nOur goal in this section will be to characterize the solution to the following convex program, where\nthe constraint set precludes selection of overly complex matrices in the sense of (13):\n\n\u02c6Z = arg min\nZ2C\n\n1\nN kP\u2326(Y  Z)k2\n\nF + kZkA where C :=(Z : \u21b5g(Z)g(Z) \uf8ff \u00afc0s\n\nlog(m + n)) ,\n\nN\n\nwhere \u00afc0 is a constant depending on \u21b5?.\nA quick note on solving (15): since k\u00b7k A is a weighted nuclear norm, one can resort to proximal\npoint methods [6], or greedy methods developed speci\ufb01cally for atomic norm constrained minimiza-\ntion [18, 22]. The latter are particularly attractive, since the greedy step reduces to computing the\nmaximum singular vectors which can be ef\ufb01ciently computed using power methods. However, such\nmethods will \ufb01rst involve computing the eigen decompositions of the graph Laplacians, and then\nstoring the large, dense matrices A, B. We refrain from resorting to such methods in Section 6, and\ninstead use the ef\ufb01cient framework derived in Section 3. We now state our main theoretical result:\nTheorem 2. Suppose we observe N entries of the form (12) from a matrix Z? 2 Rm\u21e5n, with\n\u21b5? := \u21b5g(Z?) and which can be represented using at most k atoms from (8). Let \u02c6Z be the minimizer\nof the convex problem (15) with   C1q (m+n) log(m+n)\n\n. Then, with high probability, we have\n\nN\n\n(15)\n\nk \u02c6Z  Z?k2\n\nF \uf8ff C\u21b5 ?2 max1, 2 k(m + n) log(m + n)\n\nN\n\n+ O\u2713 \u21b5?2\nN \u25c6\n\nwhere C, C1 are positive constants.\n\nSee Appendix C for the detailed proof. A proof sketch is as follows:\n\n5Our results can be generalized to non uniform sampling schemes as well.\n\n6\n\n\fProof Sketch: There are three major portions of the proof:\n\n\u2022 Using the fact that Z? has unit Frobenius norm and can be expressed as a combination of\nat most k atoms, we can show kZ?kA \uf8ff pk (Appendix C.1)\n\u2022 Using (10), we can derive a bound for the dual norm of the gradient of the loss L(Z), given\nby krL(Z)k\u21e4A = kS 1\nh k. (Appendix C.2)\n\u2022 Finally, using (13), we de\ufb01ne a notion of restricted strong convexity (RSC) that the \u201cerror\u201d\nmatrices Z?  \u02c6Z lie in. The proof follows closely along the lines of the equivalent result\nin [16], with appropriate modi\ufb01cations to accommodate our generalized weighted nuclear\nnorm. (Appendix C.3).\n\nwrL(Z)UhS 1\n\n2\n\n2\n\nw U T\n\n5.1 Comparison to Standard Matrix Completion:\n\nIt is instructive to consider our result in the context of noisy matrix completion with uniform samples.\nIn this case, one would replace Lw, Lh by identity matrices, effectively ignoring graph information\navailable. Speci\ufb01cally, the \u201cstandard\u201d notion of spikiness (\u21b5n := pmnkZk1\n) de\ufb01ned in [16]\nkZkF\nwill apply, and the corresponding error bound (Theorem 2) will have \u21b5? replaced by \u21b5n(Z?). In\ngeneral, it is hard to quantify the relationship between \u21b5g and \u21b5n, and a detailed comparison is an\ninteresting topic for future work. However, we show below using simulations for various scenarios\nthat the former is much smaller than the latter. We generate m \u21e5 m matrices of rank k = 10,\nM = U \u2303V T with U, V being random orthonormal matrices and \u2303 having diagonal elements picked\nfrom a uniform[0, 1] distribution. We generate graphs at random using the schemes discussed below,\nand set Z = AM BT , with A, B as de\ufb01ned in Corollary 1. We then compute \u21b5n,\u21b5 g for various m.\n\nComparing \u21b5g to \u21b5n: Most real world graphs exhibit a power law degree distribution. We\ngenerated graphs with the ith node having degree (m \u21e5 ip) with varying negative p values. Figure\n1(a) shows that as p ! 0 from below, the gains received from using our norm is clear compared to\nthe standard nuclear norm. We also observe that in general the weighted formulation is never worse\nthen unweighted (The dotted magenta line is \u21b5n/\u21b5g = 1). The same applies for random graphs,\nwhere there is an edge between each (i, j) with varying probability p (Figure 1(b)).\n\n \n\nm = 100\nm = 200\nm = 300\n\n25\n\n20\n\n15\n\n10\n\n5\n\n \n\ng\n\n\u03b1\n\n \n/\n \n\n\u03b1\n\n \n\nn\n\nm = 100\nm = 200\nm = 300\n\n \n\n5\n\n4\n\n3\n\n2\n\n\u22124\n\nx 10\n\n6\n\n5\n\n4\n\n3\n\n2\n\n1\n\nE\nS\nM\n\n \n\nGWNN\nNN\n\n \n\ng\n\n\u03b1\n\n \n/\n \n\n\u03b1\n\n \n\nn\n\n0\n\n \n\n\u22120.1\n\n\u22120.2\n\n\u22120.5\n\np\n\n\u22121\n\n\u22121.5\n\n\u22122\n\n(a) Power Law\n\n \n\n1\n0.1\n\n0.15\n\n0.2\n\n0.25\n\n0.5\n\n1\n\np\n\n(b) Random\n\n0\n \n0\n\n1\n\n2\n\n3\n\n4\n\n # measurements x 1000\n\n(c) Sample Complexity\n\nFigure 1: (a), (b): Ratio of spikiness measures for traditional matrix completion and our formulation.\n(c): Sample complexity for the nuclear norm (NN) and generalized weighted nuclear norm (GWNN)\n\nSample Complexity: We tested the sample complexity needed to recover a m = n = 200, k = 20\nmatrix, generated from a power law distributed graph with p = 0.5. Figure 1(c) again outlines that\nthe atomic formulation requires fewer examples to get an accurate recovery. We average the results\nover 10 independent runs, and we used [18] to solve the atomic norm constrained problem.\n\n6 Experiments on Real Datasets\nComparison to Related Formulations: We compare GRALS to other methods that incorporate\nside information for matrix completion: the ADMM method of [12] that regularizes the entire target\nmatrix; using known features (IMC) [10, 24]; and standard matrix completion (MC). We use the\nMOVIELENS 100k dataset,6 that has user/movie features along with the ratings matrix. The dataset\ncontains user features (such as age (numeric), gender (binary), and occupation), which we map\n\n6http://grouplens.org/datasets/movielens/\n\n7\n\n\f1.25\n\n1.2\n\n1.15\n\n1.1\n\n1.05\n\n1\n\n0.95\n\nE\nS\nM\nR\n\n0.9\n \n\u22124\n\n\u22122\n\n0\n\nlog\n\n(time) (s)\n\n2\n\n10\n\n \n\nADMM\nMC\nGRALS\n\n4\n\n6\n\n8\n\nMethod\nIMC\nGlobal mean\nUser mean\nMovie mean\nADMM\nMC\nGRALS\n\nRMSE\n1.653\n1.154\n1.063\n1.033\n0.996\n0.973\n0.945\n\nFigure 2: Time comparison of different methods\non MOVIELENS 100k\n\nTable 1: RMSE on the\nMOVIELENS dataset\n\nTable 2: Data statistics.\n\nDataset\nFlixster ([11])\nDouban ([14])\nYahooMusic ([8])\n\n# users\n147,612\n129,490\n249,012\n\n# items\n48,794\n58,541\n296,111\n\n# ratings\n8,196,077\n16,830,839\n55,749,965\n\n# links\n2,538,746\n1,711,802\n57,248,136\n\nrank used\n\n10\n10\n20\n\ninto a 22 dimensional feature vector per user. We then construct a 10-nearest neighbor graph using\nthe euclidean distance metric. We do the same for the movies, except in this case we have an 18\ndimensional feature vector per movie. For IMC, we use the feature vectors directly. We trained\na model of rank 10, and chose optimal parameters by cross validation. Table 1 shows the RMSE\nobtained for the methods considered. Figure 2 shows that the ADMM method, while obtaining a\nreasonable RMSE does not scale well, since one has to compute an SVD at each iteration.\nScalability of GRALS: We now demonstrate that the proposed GRALS method is more ef\ufb01cient\nthan other state-of-the-art methods for solving the graph-regularized matrix factorization problem\n(5). We compare GRALS to the SGD method in [27], and GD: ALS with simple gradient descent.\nWe consider three large-scale real-world collaborate \ufb01ltering datasets with graph information: see\nTable 2 for details.7 We randomly select 90% of ratings as the training set and use the remaining\n10% as the test set. All the experiments are performed on an Intel machine with Xeon CPU E5-\n2680 v2 Ivy Bridge and enough RAM. Figure 3 shows orders of magnitude improvement in time\ncompared to SGD. More experimental results are provided in the supplementary material.\n\n(a) Flixster\n\n(b) Douban\n\n(c) YahooMusic\n\nFigure 3: Comparison of GRALS, GD, and SGD. The x-axis is the computation time in log-scale.\n\n7 Discussion\nIn this paper, we have considered the problem of collaborative \ufb01ltering with graph information for\nusers and/or items, and showed that it can be cast as a generalized weighted nuclear norm prob-\nlem. We derived statistical consistency guarantees for our method, and developed a highly scalable\nalternating minimization method. Experiments on large real world datasets show that our method\nachieves \u21e0 2 orders of magnitude speedups over competing approaches.\nAcknowledgments\nThis research was supported by NSF grant CCF-1320746. H.-F. 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SIAM, 2012.\n\n2009.\n\n9\n\n\f", "award": [], "sourceid": 1260, "authors": [{"given_name": "Nikhil", "family_name": "Rao", "institution": "University of Texas at Austin"}, {"given_name": "Hsiang-Fu", "family_name": "Yu", "institution": "U Texas"}, {"given_name": "Pradeep", "family_name": "Ravikumar", "institution": "University of Texas at Austin"}, {"given_name": "Inderjit", "family_name": "Dhillon", "institution": "University of Texas at Austin"}]}